地质和油气地球化学Geology and Geochemistry of Oil and Gas.pdf

geology and geochemistry of oil and gas DEVELOPMENTS IN PETROLEUM SCIENCE 52 i Volumes 1-7, 9-18, 19b, 20-29, 31, 34, 35, 37-39 are out of print. 8Fundamentals of Reservoir Engineering 19aSurface Operations in Petroleum Production, I 30Carbonate Reservoir Characterization A Geologic-Engineering Analysis, Part I 32Fluid Mechanics for Petroleum Engineers 33Petroleum Related Rock Mechanics 36The Practice of Reservoir Engineering Revised Edition 40aAsphaltenes and Asphalts, I 40bAsphaltenes and Asphalts, II 41Subsidence due to Fluid Withdrawal 42Casing Design – Theory and Practice 43Tracers in the Oil Field 44Carbonate Reservoir Characterization A Geologic-Engineering Analysis, Part II 45Thermal Modeling of Petroleum Generation Theory and Applications 46Hydrocarbon Exploration and Production 47PVT and Phase Behaviour of Petroleum Reservoir Fluids 48Applied Geothermics for Petroleum Engineers 49Integrated Flow Modeling 50Origin and Prediction of Abnormal ation Pressures 51Soft Computing and Intelligent Data Analysis in Oil Exploration 52 Geology and Geochemistry of Oil and Gas DEVELOPMENTS IN PETROLEUM SCIENCE 52 ii geology and geochemistry of oil and gas DEVELOPMENTS IN PETROLEUM SCIENCE 52 G.V. Chilingar, L.A. Buryakovsky, N.A. Eremenko phone 1 978 7508400, fax 1 978 7504744, and in the UK through the Copyright Licensing Agency Rapid Clearance Service CLARCS, 90 Tottenham Court Road, London W1P 0LP, UK; phone 44 20 7631 5555; fax 44 20 7631 5500. Other countries may have a local reprographic rights agency for payments. Derivative Works Tables of contents may be reproduced for internal circulation, but permission of the Publisher is required for external resale or distribution of such material. Permission of the Publisher is required for all other derivative works, including compilations and translations. Electronic Storage or Usage Permission of the Publisher is required to store or use electronically any material contained in this work, including any chapter or part of a chapter. Except as outlined above, no part of this work may be reproduced, stored in a retri system or transmitted in any or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without prior written permission of the Publisher. Address permissions requests to Elseviers Rights Department, at the fax and e-mail addresses noted above. Notice No responsibility is assumed by the Publisher for any injury and/or damage to persons or property as a matter of products liability, negligence or otherwise, or from any use or operation of any s, products, instructions or ideas contained in the material herein. Because of rapid advances in the medical sciences, in particular, independent verification of diagnoses and drug dosages should be made. First edition 2005 ISBN-10 0 444 52053 8 ISSN 0376-7361 Series The paper used in this publication meets the requirements of ANSI/NISO Z39.48-1992 Permanence of Paper. Printed in The Netherlands. ISBN-13 978-0-444-52053-1 iv DEDICATION This Book is dedicated to His Highness Sheikh Hamad Bin Khalifa Al Thani The Emir of the State of Qatar And Her Highness Sheikha Mozah Bint Nasser Al Missned For their global vision and dedication to democratic re, education, and valiant efforts in promoting peace in the region v This page intentionally left blank vi FOREWORD The geology and geochemistry of petroleum are becoming ever more important as the demand for fossil fuels increases worldwide. We must fi nd new hydrocarbon reserves that are hidden in almost inaccessible areas. Our knowledge of petroleum geology and geochemistry is the best intellectual tool that we have for the never- ending search for rich new deposits of hydrocarbons. The geology of the rocks under deep oceans and on continental shelves has become much more important as advances in technology permit drilling in these areas. Developments in petroleum geology and geochemistry, and advances in seismic and well-logging measurements, provide a better understanding of the evolution of subsurface sedimentary deposits and the migration, entrapment, and production of hydrocarbons. This book touches upon the great strides that are being made through electronic innovations in instrumental measurements of geologic and geochemical systems. The structure of the book is actually a balance of four topical sections. The fundamental aspects of petroleum geology, geochemistry, and accumulation, uation, and production of subsurface fl uids are discussed in the fi rst three sections followed by the fourth section on mathematical modeling of geologic systems. Chapters 1–3 introduce a systematic approach to understanding sedimentary rocks and their role in the evolution and containment of subsurface fl uids. This is discussed in relation to the physical conditions of hydrocarbon reserves e.g., at very high temperatures and pressures. Chapters 4–6 discuss the physical and chemical properties of subsurface waters, crude oils and natural gases. The physical and chemical properties are especially important to production engineering and mathematical simulation because they impact the relative motions of fl uids as saturation changes during production 1 wettability of rocks affects production characteristics and ultimate recovery; 2 relative permeability affects fl uid movement to the production wells; 3 density differences between immiscible fl uids affect gravity drainage from one part of the reservoir to another as the reservoir fl uids are depleted; 4 viscosity of fl uids affects the relative mobility of each fl uid; and 5 fl uid chemistry affects the absorption, ultimate recovery and monetary value of the produced hydrocarbons. Chapters 7–10 discuss the ation and accumulation of crude oils and natural gases 1 changes in the chemical composition of hydrocarbons that originate from the debris of living plants to crude oils; 2 the origins of hydrocarbons in different areas of a single reservoir; also, the conditions which determine the distribution of water, oil, and gas in the reservoir; 3 migration of subsurface fl uids until they eventually accumulate in isolated geologic traps; and 4 a discussion of the oil traps as a function of sedimentary geology. vii Chapter 11 explains the analytical and statistical approaches to modern mathematical modeling of both static and dynamic geologic systems. Modeling of static systems i.e., simulation of the structure and composition of geologic systems is done regardless of time to develop a basis for geologic exploration and hydrocarbon reserve estimation, whereas dynamic models capture any changes taking place with respect to time for use in studying production and fi eld development. This book is recommended to the geologists, geochemists, petroleum engineers, and graduate university students studying petroleum geology, engineering, and geochemistry. E.C. Donaldson Managing Editor of Journal of Petroleum Science and Engineering Wynnewood, Oklahoma FOREWORDviii PREFACE The progress in the oil and gas industry is related closely to the acceleration of discovery rates, exploration, development, and production of hydrocarbon resourc- es. Exploration, development, and production of hydrocarbon resources must be based on reliable ination, which helps to predict subsurface conditions and properties of oil- and gas-bearing ations. Main oil and gas reserves are found in sedimentary basins composed of ter- rigenous siliciclastic, carbonate, and, sometimes, volcanic or volcaniclastic rocks. Preservation of high reservoir pressure and good properties of reservoir rocks and seals caprocks in these basins depends greatly on their origin and further evolution. The process of sedimentation, and the following processes of diagenesis i.e., phys- ical, chemical and biochemical processes, which occur in the sediments after sed- imentation and through lithifi cation at near-surface temperature and pressure and catagenesis or epigenesis i.e., physical and chemical processes, which occur in the sedimentary rocks at high temperatures and pressures after lithifi cation and up to metamorphism, cause alterations, which may enable one to predict oil and gas potential. Considering an interest demonstrated by petroleum geologists and reservoir en- gineers, this book discusses the major theoretical and practical problems of petro- leum geology and geochemistry as they are viewed at the end of the 20th century and the beginning of the 21st century. The treatment of the material is non-uni in the sense that the accepted scientific concepts are treated cursorily, just to maintain the completeness and continuity of the story, whereas the disputable and innovative issues are handled in more detail. The discussion is conducted from a position of the science of petroleum geology, geochemistry, and other related disciplines. For instance, in describing oil-bearing sequences, the main brunt is on depositional environmentsandsuchfeaturesasreservoirand fl uid-sealingproperties. A considerable attention is devoted to the transations within the rock– water–organic matter system of the Earth’s crust with changes in the subsurface temperature and pressure. New reservoir and accumulation types are identifi ed and their exploration/development features are defi ned. A variety of common reservoir engineering problems can be solved during fi eld development and production by the integration of geological, geochemical, and en- gineering studies. For example, such studies can identify reservoir compartment- alization, allocate commingled production, identify completion problems such as tubing leaks or poor casing cementing jobs, predict fl uid properties viscosity, den- sity prior to production tests, characterize induced fracture geometry, monitor the waterfl ood process and water encroachment, or explain the causes of produced sludge. ix Discussions in this book are based on the systems approach to the specific ge- ologic systems. Along with this approach, mathematical modeling of the static and dynamic geologic systems is described as well. The use of mathematical s and computer techniques increases the scope of problems that can be solved on the basis of integrated geological, geophysical, geochemical and engineering ination. Mathematical s using computer processing of the current ination ac- celerate the process of regional and local prediction of oil and gas potential that, in general, increases the economical and geologic effi ciency of exploration, develop- ment, and production of oil and gas. George V. Chilingar, Leonid A. Buryakovsky PREFACEx NOMENCLATURE Adadiffusion–adsorption factor Atabsolute geological age B‘‘benzine’’ gasoline content Belbulk volume elasticity Bffracture spacing C classifi cation Ccarbcarbonate cement content Cclclay cement content Ddepth dwater density at 3.981C ddiameter dwwellbore diameter dactactual wellbore diameter dnomnominal wellbore diameter dchpore-channel diameter dp,aveaverage pore diameter dp,Memedian pore diameter Eexpectancy Fation resistivity factor Fp,tation resistivity factor at reservoir conditions F0resistivity index F0p,tresistivity index at reservoir conditions Ggeothermal gradient Gooil pressure gradient in reservoir Gwinitial water pressure gradient in seal DGGibbs free-energy difference Hentropy of ination Hmaxmaximum entropy Hrrelative entropy H0zero hypothesis hthickness heffeffective net thickness hshshale thickness Dhsealseal thickness Dhaccumulation column Iquantity of ination DIgrelative GR factor xi DIngrelative NGR factor K fi ltration coeffi cient Kapressure-abnormality factor kpermeability kJpermeability parallel to bedding kpermeability perpendicular to bedding ki modeling coeffi cient of sediment compaction Lligroin content Llength Lclength of capillaries Mmathematical expectancy Mmolecular mass mmass mnumber of parameters in the data matrix mcementation exponent Nnumber of measurements, tests or observations nnumber of objects in the data matrix nsaturation exponent Oobject Pparameter Paccaccumulation’s total potential energy Pbreakthroughbreakthrough potential Ppwmaximum potential of pore water in seal Pw.l, layerwater potential of the lower layer Pw.u, layerwater potential of the upper layer Pwrwater potential in reservoir piprobability Pccapillary pressure Ppressure peexternal pressure, total overburden pressure pfation pressure pi internal pressure, pore-fl uid pressure peffeffective grain-to-grain pressure plitlithostatic overburden pressure pppore pressure prreservoir pressure pnormnormalized pressure Dppressure differential Q100cation-exchange capacity per 100g of rock q volumetric fl ow rate qliqliquid production rate qoiloil production rate Rcontent of resins and asphaltenes Rdrate of sedimentation NOMENCLATURExii Rzvertical water density change Relectric resistivity Raapparent resistivity RaAOapparent resistivity from lateral sonde of AO size Rcrcut-off critical resistivity of oil-saturated reservoir Rg,rresistivity of gas-saturated reservoir Roiloil resistivity Ro,rresistivity of oil-saturated reservoir Rshshale resistivity Rttrue resistivity of rock Rt,minminimum true resistivity Rwwater resistivity Roresistivity of water-saturated reservoir Rmdrilling-mud resistivity Rmf mud-fi ltrate resistivity RILresistivity from induction log r correlation coeffi cient rradius rcradius of capillaries Sooil saturation So/goil/gas saturation So,rresidual oil saturation Swwater saturation Sw,rresidual water saturation Scarbhomogeneity of carbonates Ssortsorting factor Sshsorting of shales Ssssorting of sandstones sbspecific surface area of pore space per unit of bulk volume sgspecific surface area of pore space per unit of grain volume spspecific surface area of pore space per unit of pore volume shfshape factor for pores SGspecific gravity Ttemperature DTinterval transit time ttime ta probability index at confi dence level a Urelative change in volume of sediments DUSPrelative SP factor Vvolume Vcvolume of capillaries VAHFPrate of AHFP ation Velastrate of creation of elastic stress Vrelaxrate of stress relaxation NOMENCLATURExiii Vsseismic velocity vspecific volume vlvariation of anisotropy vRvariation of resistivity zoaltitude of comparison surface with equal normalized pressure a level of significance confi dence level aSPSP reduction factor bmodulus of elasticity bcirreversible compaction factor compressibility factor gdensity gooil density gwwater density Zclrelative clay content in rock Zppore-pressure gradient Zshpore-pressure gradient in shales Zration-pressure gradient in reservoir rocks l anisotropy coeffi cient mdynamic viscosity nkinematic viscosity sstress; tension sstandard deviation, or mean square error sRstandard deviation of resistivity sr standard deviation of co