石油加工手册Handbook of Petroleum Processing.pdf

Handbook of Petroleum Processing Handbook of Petroleum Processing Edited by DAVID S. J. “STAN” JONES† and PETER R. PUJADO retired chemical engineer Fluor Calgary, Canada UOP LLC retired-Illinois, U.S.A. A C.I.P. Catalogue record for this book is available from the Library of Congress. ISBN-10 1-4020-2819-9 HB ISBN-13 978-1-4020-2819-9 HB ISBN-10 1-4020-2820-2 e-book Published by Springer, P.O. Box 17, 3300 AA Dordrecht, The Netherlands. Printed on acid-free paper All Rights Reserved. C No part of this work may be reproduced, stored in a retri system, or transmitted in any or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, microfi lming, recording or otherwise, without written permission from the Publisher, with the exception of any material supplied specifi cally for the purpose of being entered and cuted on a computer system, for exclusive use by the purchaser of the work. Printed in the Netherlands. Contributing Editors ISBN-13 978-1-4020-2820-5 e-book L. C. James, Cambridge, Massachusetts, USA G. A. Mansoori, University of Illinois at Chicago, USA 2006 Springer Contents 1. An introduction to crude oil and its processing1 The composition and characteristics of crude oil1 The crude oil assay6 Other basic defi nitions and correlations9 Predicting product qualities18 Basic processes27 The processes common to most energy refi neries28 Processes not so common to energy refi neries37 The non-energy refi neries40 References45 2. Petroleum products and a refi nery confi guration47 2.1 Introduction47 2.2 Petroleum products48 2.3 A discussion on the motive fuels of gasoline and diesel63 2.4 A refi nery process confi guration development76 Conclusion109 3. The atmospheric and vacuum crude distillation units111 3.1 The atmospheric crude distillation unit112 Process description112 The development of the material balance for the atmospheric crude distillation unit115 The design characteristics of an atmospheric crude distillation fractionating tower119 The fractionator overhead system122 The side streams and intermediate refl ux sections128 Calculating the main tower dimensions137 The crude feed preheat exchanger system design142 An example in the design of an atmospheric crude oil distillation tower146 v viCONTENTS 3.2 The vacuum crude distillation unit169 Process description169 The vacuum crude distillation unit’s fl ash zone171 The tower overhead ejector system172 Calculating fl ash zone conditions in a vacuum unit176 Draw-off temperatures177 Determine pumparound and internal fl ows for vacuum towers178 Calculate tower loading in the packed section of vacuum towers179 Appendix183 4. The distillation of the ‘Light Ends’ from crude oil189 A process description of a ‘light ends’ unit189 Developing the material balance for light end units191 Calculating the operating conditions in light end towers196 Calculating the number of trays in light end towers199 Condenser and reboiler duties203 Tower loading and sizing205 Checks for light end tower operation and perance214 5. Catalytic reing217 Feedstocks219 Catalysts227 Process fl ow schemes232 Advantages of CCR Plating234 Catalysts and suppliers236 References237 6. Fluid catalytic cracking FCC239 Fluidization244 Process control247 Reaction chemistry and mechanisms248 Gas oil cracking technology features250 Cracking for light olefi ns and aromatics271 Nomenclature278 References279 Appendix 6.1. Commercially available FCC catalysts and additives282 7. Distillate hydrocracking287 Brief history287 Flow schemes288 Chemistry292 Catalysts298 CONTENTSvii Catalyst manufacturing300 Catalyst loading and activation305 Catalyst deactivation and regeneration306 Design and operation of hydrocracking reactors308 Hydrocracking process variables312 Hydrocracker licensors and catalyst manufacturers319 8. Hydrotreating321 Brief history322 Flow schemes323 Chemistry327 Catalysts334 Catalyst manufacturing337 Catalyst loading and activation340 Catalyst deactivation and regeneration342 Design and operation of hydrotreating reactors344 Hydrotreating process variables347 Hydrotreaters licensors and catalyst manufacturers353 9. Gasoline components355 9.1 Motor fuel alkylation355 Introduction355 History355 Process chemistry356 HF alkylation process fl ow description360 Sulfuric acid alkylation364 Stratco effl uent refrigerated alkylation process366 Alkylate properties370 Recent developments370 Conclusions371 References371 9.2 Catalytic olefi n condensation372 Introduction372 History373 Catalytic condensation process373 Catalytic condensation process for gasoline production376 Hydrogenated versus nonhydrogenated polymer gasolines from the catalytic condensation process379 Selective and nonselective gasoline production with the catalytic condensation process383 Catalytic condensation process as a source of diesel fuels385 Petrochemical operations386 Dimersol process389 viiiCONTENTS Other dimerization or oligomerization processes391 Recent developments392 Catalytic olefi n condensation with the InAlk process393 Catalyst suppliers398 Conclusions398 References399 9.3 Isomerization technologies for the upgrading of light naphtha and refi nery light ends400 Introduction400 Process chemistry of paraffi n isomerization401 Primary reaction pathways403 Isomerization catalysts404 I-80 catalyst development and applications406 LPI-100 catalyst development and applications409 New isomerization process technologies410 Isomerization process economics412 Other applications415 Conclusions415 References416 Bibliography416 10. Refi nery gas treating processes417 Introduction417 The process development and description417 Common processes419 Other gas treating processes423 Calculating the amine circulation rate424 Calculating the number of theoretical trays in an amine contactor425 Calculating absorber tray size and design428 Calculating the heat transfer area for the lean/rich amine exchanger428 The stripper design and perance429 Removing degradation impurities from MEA430 Appendix 10.1 The process design of an amine gas treating unit431 11. Upgrading the ‘Bottom of the Barrel’447 The thermal cracking processes448 ‘Deep oil’ fl uid catalytic cracking458 Residuum hydrocracking469 Conclusion472 Appendix 11.1 Sizing a thermal cracker heater/reactor473 CONTENTSix 12. The non-energy refi neries483 Introduction483 12.1 The lube oil refi nery483 Lube oil properties486 A description of major processes in lube oil refi ning487 12.2 Asphalt production494 12.3 The petrochemical refi nery508 The production of aromatics508 Process discussion511 Appendix 12.1 Sizing a bitumen oxidizer512 13. Support systems common to most refi neries521 13.1 Control systems521 Defi nitions522 Refl ux drums523 The control valve528 13.2 Offsite systems533 Storage facilities533 Atmospheric storage534 Pressure storage536 Heated storage tanks537 Calculating heat loss and heater size for a tank538 Product blending facilities542 Road and rail loading facilities545 Jetty and dock facilities549 Jetty size, access, and location549 Waste disposal facilities552 The fl are559 Effl uent water treating facilities565 Other treating processes567 Utility Systems568 Brief descriptions of typical utility systems569 Steam and condensate systems569 Fuel systems570 Water systems575 The “hot lime” process581 The ion exchange processes581 Compressed air system585 13.3 Safety systems587 Determination of risk587 Defi nitions588 Types of pressure relief valves591 Capacity593 xCONTENTS Sizing of required orifi ce areas595 Sizing for fl ashing liquids600 Sizing for gas or vapor on low-pressure subsonic fl ow600 Appendix 13.1 Example calculation for sizing a tank heater602 Appendix 13.2 Example calculation for sizing a relief value606 Appendix 13.3 Control valve sizing607 14. Environmental control and engineering in petroleum refi ning611 Introduction611 14.1 Aqueous wastes611 Pollutants in aqueous waste streams612 Treating refi nery aqueous wastes616 Oxidation of sulfi des to thiosulfates621 Oxidation of mercaptans623 Oxidation of sulfi de to sulfate624 Oil–water separation624 The API oil–water separator625 Storm surge ponds628 Other refi nery water effl uent treatment processes629 Reference630 14.2 Emission to the atmosphere631 Features of the Clean Air Act631 The major effects of air pollution and the most common pollutants634 Monitoring atmospheric emission639 Reducing and controlling the atmospheric pollution in refi nery products640 Controlling emission pollution from the refi ning processes643 14.3 Noise pollution646 Noise problems and typical in-plant/community noise standards646 Fundamentals of acoustics and noise control647 Coping with noise in the design phase652 A typical community/in-plant noise program653 Appendix 14.1 Partial pressures of H2S and NH3over aqueous solutions of H2S and NH3657 Appendix 14.2 Example of the design of a sour water stripper with no refl ux667 Appendix 14.3 Example design of an API separator672 CONTENTSxi 15. Refi nery safety measures and handling of hazardous materials675 Introduction675 15.1 Handling of hazardous materials675 Anhydrous hydrofl uoric acid675 The amines used in gas treating681 Caustic soda683 Furfural687 Hydrogen sulfi de, H2S690 Methyl ethyl ketone, MEK693 15.2 Fire prevention and fi re fi ghting696 The design specifi cation696 Fire prevention with respect to equipment design and operation697 The fi re main701 Fire foam and foam systems701 Class B fi re foams703 Class A fi re foams704 16. Quality control of products in petroleum refi ning705 Introduction705 16.1 Specifi cations for some common fi nished products706 The LPG products706 The gasolines706 The kerosenes708 Aviation turbine gasoline ATG and jet fuels708 The gas oils710 The fuel oil products712 The lube oils713 The asphalts713 Petroleum coke714 Sulfur715 16.2 The description of some of the more common tests715 Specifi c gravity D1298715 ASTM distillations D86, D156716 Flash point test D93718 Pour point and cloud point D97718 Kinematic viscosity D446721 Reid vapor pressure D323723 Weathering test for the volatility of LPG D1837724 Smoke point of kerosenes and aviation turbine fuels D1322726 xiiCONTENTS Conradson carbon residue of petroleum products D189731 Bromine number of petroleum distillates D1159733 Sulfur content by lamp D1266734 Octane number research and motor736 Conclusion737 17.1. EconomicsRefi nery planning, economics, and handing new projects739 17.1.1 Refi nery operation planning739 Running plans740 Developing the running plan743 Background745 Basis for assessing requirements746 The results747 The refi nery operating program748 17.1.2 Process uation and economic analysis752 Study approach752 Building process confi gurations and the screening study756 Example calculation758 Investment costs for the new facilities762 Preparing more accurate cost data767 Summary data sheets771 Capital cost estimates775 Discounted cash fl ow and economic analysis784 Results793 Using linear programs to optimize process confi gurations794 cuting an approved project799 Developing the duty specifi cation799 The project team806 Primary activities of the project team807 Developing the operating manual and plant commissioning822 Process guarantees and the guarantee test run830 Appendices 17.1.1 Refi nery plan inadequacies report836 17.1.2 Crude oil inventory schedule837 17.1.3 Product inventory and schedule838 17.1.4 Outline operating schedule839 17.1.5 Detailed operating program and schedule840 17.1.6 Typical weekly program841 CONTENTSxiii 17.1.7 Typical factors used in capacity factored estimates842 17.1.8 Example of a process specifi cation842 17.1.9 Example of a process guarantee844 17.2. Economic analysis851 Introduction851 Analysis at one point in time852 Cost of production859 Reporting parameters864 Appendices 17.2.1 Background for economic calculations869 17.2.2 Progressions873 17.2.3 Loan repayments mortgage ula874 17.2.4 Average rate of interest875 18. Process equipment in petroleum refi ning877 Introduction877 18.1 Vessels877 Fractionators, trays, and packings878 Drums and drum design908 Specifying pressure vessels914 18.2 Pumps924 Pump selection928 Selection characteristics929 Capacity range929 uating pump perance934 Specifying a centrifugal pump936 The mechanical specifi cation937 The process specifi cation938 Compiling the pump calculation sheet938 Centrifugal pump seals943 Pump drivers and utilities946 Reacceleration requirement949 The principle of the turbine driver950 The perance of the steam turbine951 18.3 Compressors954 Calculating horsepower of centrifugal compressors956 Centrifugal compressor surge control, perance curves and seals963 Specifying a centrifugal compressor968 Calculating reciprocating compressor horsepower975 Reciprocating compressor controls and inter-cooling979 xivCONTENTS Specifying a reciprocating compressor982 Compressor drivers, utilities, and ancillary equipment990 18.4 Heat exchangers999 General design considerations1002 Choice of tube side versus shell side1005 Estimating shell and tube surface area and pressure drop1006 Air coolers and condensers1016 Condensers1025 Reboilers1029 18.5 Fired heaters1040 Codes and standards1043 Thermal rating1045 Heater effi ciency1047 Burners1051 Refractories, stacks, and stack emissions1053 Specifying a fi red heater1058 Appendices 18.1 LMTD correction factors1066 18.2 Heat of combustion of fuel oils1067 18.3 Heat of combustion of fuel gasses1068 18.4 Values for coeffi cient C1069 18.5 Some common heat transfer coeffi cients1070 18.6 Standard exchanger tube sheet data1070 19. A dictionary of terms and expressions1071 Appendices1285 A Examples of working fl ow sheets1285 BGeneral data1290 B1Friction loss for viscous liquids1291 B2 Resistance of valves and fi ttings1300 B3Viscosity versus temperature1301 B4 Specifi c gravity versus temperature1302 B5 Relationship between specifi c gravity and API degrees1303 B6Flow pressure drop for gas streams1305 B7Relationship of chords, diameters, and areas1307 CA selection of crude oil assays1308 D Conversion factors1330 EAn example of an rcise using linear programming1332 Linear programming aids decisions on refi nery confi gurations1333 Alphabetic index1349 Chapter 1 An introduction to crude oil and its processing D.S.J. Jones The wheel, without doubt, was man’s greatest invention. However until the late 18th century and early 19th century the motivation and use of the wheel was limited either bymusclepower,manoranimal,orbyenergynaturallyoccurringfromwaterfl owand wind. The invention of the steam engine provided, for the fi rst time, a motive power independent of muscle or the natural elements. This ignited the industrial revolution of the 19th century, with its feverish hunt for fossil fuels to generate the steam. It also initiated the development of the mass production of steel and other commodities. Lateinthe19thcenturycamethe