石油地面生产第二册Surface Production Operations VOLUME2 2E.pdf

Surface Production Operations VOLUME DISCLAIMER This text contains descriptions, statements, equations, procedures, ology, interpretations, and other written matter and ination, hereinafter collectively called “contents,“ that have been carefully consid- ered and prepared as a matter of general ination. The contents aie believed to reliably represent situations and conditions that have occurred ui could occur, but are not represented or guaranteed as to the accuracy or application to other conditions or situations. There are many variable condi- tions in production facility design and related situations, and the authors have no knowledge or control of their interpretation. Therefore, the contents and all interpretations and recommendations made in connection herewith are presented solely as a guide for the users consideration, investigation, and verification. No warranties of any kind, whether expressed or implied, are made in connection therewith. The user is specifically cautioned, reminded, and advised that any use or interpretation of the contents and resulting use or application thereof are made at the sole risk of the user. In production facility design there are tnan proprietary designs and tech- niques. We have tried to show designs and techniques in a generic nature where possible. The user must assure himself that in actual situations il is appropriate to use this generic approach. If the actual situation differs from the generic situation in design or lies outside the bounds of assumptions used in the various equations, the user must modify the ination con- tained herein accordingly. In consideration of these premises, any user of the contents agrees to indemnify and hold harmless the authors and publisher from ail claims and actions for loss, damages, death, or injury to persons or property. Systems and Facilities Ken Arnold Maurice Stewart Surface Prod uction Operations VOLUME Design of Gas-Handing SECOND EDITION Surface Production Operations VOLUME 2 Design of Gas-Handling Systems and Facilities Copyright 1989, 1999 by Elsevier Science USA. All rights reserved. Printed in the United States of America. This book, or parts thereof, may not be reproduced in any without permission of the publisher. Originally published by Gulf Publishing Company, Houston, TX. For ination, please contact Manager of Special Sales Elsevier Science 200 Wheeler Road Burlington, MA 01803 Tel 781-313-4700 Fax781-313-4882 For ination on all Gulf Professional Publishing titles available, contact our World Wide Web home page at 1 0 987654 Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Arnold, Ken, 1942- Design of gas-handling systems and facilities / Ken Arnold, Maurice Stewart. 2nd ed. p. cm. Surface production operations ; v. 2 Includes index, ISBN 0-88415-822-5 alk. paper 1. Natural gasEquipment and supplies. 2. Gas wells- Equipment and supplies. I. Stewart, Maurice. II. Title. III. Series. TN880.A69 1999 665.7-lc21 99-20405 C1P Printed in the United States of America. Printed on acid-free paper . iv Contents Acknowledgments xii Preface . xiii CHAPTER 1 Overview of Gas-Handling Facilities / CHAPTER 2 Heat Transfer Theory . 7 Mechanisms of Heat Transfer, 8 Conduction 8, Convection 9, Radiation 10, Multiple Transfer Mechanisms 11, Overall Temperature Difference 11, Overall Heat Transfer Coefficient 14, Inside Film Coefficient 15, Outside Film Coefficient in a Liquid Bath 28, Outside Film Coefficient Shell-and-Tube Exchangers 33, Approximate Overall Heat Transfer Coefficient 33 Process Heat Duty, 35 Sensible Heat 35, Latent Heat 37, Heat Duty for Multiphase Streams 39, Natural Gas Sensible Heat Duty at Constant Pressure 40, Oil Sensible Heat Duty 41, Water Sensible Heat Duty 42, Heat Duty and Phase Changes 43, Heat Lost to Atmosphere 43, Heat Transfer from a Fire Tube 44 CHAPTER 3 Heat Exchangers . , 47 Heat Exchangers, 47 Shell-and-Tube Exchangers, 48 Baffles 49, Tubes 51, Tube Pitch 51, Shells 52, Options 52, Classification 57, Selection of Types 57, Placement of Fluid 59, TEMA Classes and Tube Materials 60, Sizing 61 v Double-Pipe Exchangers, 65 Plate-and-Frame Exchangers, 65 Aerial Coolers, 74 Fired Heater, 79 Heat Recovery Units, 83 Heat Exchanger Example Problem, 86 CHAPTER 4 Hydrates 92 Determination of Hydrate ation Temperature or Pressure, 93 Condensation of Water Vapor, 98 Temperature Drop Due to Gas Expansion, 100 Thermodynamk Inhibitors, 103 Kinetic Inhibitors and Anti-Agglomerators, 107 CHAPTER S LTX Units and Line Heaters 109 LTX Units, 110 Line Heaters, 112 Heat Duty, 113 Fire-Tube Size, 115 Coil Sizing, 116 Choose Temperatures 116, Choose Coil Diameter 117, Choose Wall Thickness 118, Coil Lengths 119 Standard Size Line Heaters, 120 Line Heater Design Example Problem, 122 CHAPTER 6 Condensate Stabilization 130 Partial Pressures, 131 Multistage Separation, 131 Multiple Flashes at Constant Pressure and Increasing Temperature, 132 Cold Feed Distillation Tower, 134 Distillation Tower with Reflux, 136 Condensate Stabilizer Design, 137 vi Trays and Packing, 141 Trays 141, Packing 145, Trays or Packing 148 Condensate Stabilizer as a Gas Processing Plant, 149 LTX Unit as a Condensate Stabilizer, 149 CHAPTER 7 Acid Gas Treating 757 Gas Sweetening Processes, 156 Solid Bed Absorption 157, Chemical Solvents 161, Physical Solvent Processes 169, Direct Conversion of H2S to Sulfur 172, Sulfide Scavengers 177, Distillation 178, Gas Permeation 178 Process Selection, 179 Design Procedures for Iron-Sponge Units, 180 Design Procedures for Amine Systems, 185 Aniine Absorber 185, Amine Circulation Rates 186, Flash Drum 187, Amine Reboiler 187, Amine Stripper 188, Overhead Condenser and Reflux Accumulator 188, Rich/Lean Amine Exchanger 189, Amine Cooler 189, Amine Solution Purification 189, Materials of Construction 190 Example Problems, 190 CHAPTER 8 Gas Dehydration .795 Water Content Determination, 196 Glycol Dehydration, 196 Process Description 198, Choice of Glycol 204, Design Considerations 205, System Sizing 213, Glycol Powered Pumps 218 Glycol Dehydration Example, 222 Solid Bed Dehydration, 228 Process Description 229, Design Considerations 232 Dry Desiccant Design Example, 237 CHAPTER 9 Gas Processing 247 Absorption/Lean Oil, 244 Refrigeration, 246 vii Choice of Process, 249 Fractionation 249, Design Considerations 251 CHAPTER 1O Compressors 253 Types of Compressors, 255 Reciprocating Compressors 255, Vane-Type Rotary Compressors 264, Helical-Lobe Screw Rotary Compressors 266, Centrifugal Compressors 267 Specifying a Compressor, 270 Reciprocating CompressorsProcess Considerations, 276 Centrifugal CompressorsSurge Control and Stonewalling, 280 Centrifugal Compressors Process Considerations, 281 CHAPTER 1 1 Reciprocating Compressors 286 Components, 286 Frame 287, Cylinder 289, Special Compressor Cylinder Construction 291, Distance Pieces 293, Crosshead and Rods and Crankshaft 294, Piston 296, Bearings 296, Packing 298, Compressor Valves 300, Capacity Control Devices 302 Cylinder Sizing, 307 Piston Displacement 308, Volumetric Efficiency 308, Cylinder Throughput Capacity 309, Compressor Flexibility 310 Rod Load,310 Cooling and Lubrication Systems, 312 Compressor Cylinder Cooling 312, Frame Lubrication System 313, Cylinder/Packing Lubrication System 316 Pipe Sizing Considerations, 317 Foundation Design Considerations 319, Industry Standard Specifications 320, Fugitive Emissions Control 321 Example Problem, 321 CHAPTER 12 Mechanical Design of Pressure Vessels ... 327 Design Considerations, 328 Design Temperature 328, Design Pressure 328, Maximum Allowable Stress Values 331, Determining Wall Thickness 331, Corrosion Allowance 333 viii Inspection Procedures, 333 Estimating Vessel Weights, 335 Specification and Design of Pressure Vessels, 340 Example Problem, 351 CHAPTER 13 Pressure Relief. 355 Relief Requirements, 356 Type of Devices, 360 Conventional Relief Valves 360, Balanced-Bellows Relief Valves 363, Pilot-Operated Relief Valves 364, Rupture Discs 367 Valve Sizing, 367 Critical Flow 367, Effects of Back-Pressure 368, Flow Rate for Gas 370, Flow Rate for Liquids 372, Two-Phase Flow 374, Standard Sizes 374 Installation, 374 Vent Scrubber 376, Vent or Flare Tip 376, Relief Header Design 377 Example Problems, 380 CHAPTER 14 Safety Systems 386 Hazard Tree, 387 Developing a Safe Process, 394 Primary Defense, 396 Failure Mode Effect AnalysisFMEA, 396 Modified FMEA Approach, 398 API Recommended Practice 14C, 401 Manual Emergency Shutdown, 405 Annunciation Systems, 405 Function Matrix and Function Charts, 406 Symbols, 410 Hazards Analysis, 418 Types of Hazards Analysis 418, Problems Commonly Encountered 419 Safety Management Systems, 420 Safety Case and Individual Risk Rate, 423 ix CHAPTER 1 5 Valves, Fittings, and Piping Details 425 Valve Types, 426 Ball Valves 426, Plug Valves 430, Gate Valves 432, Butterfly Valves 432, Globe Valves 432, Diaphragm Bladder Valves 435, Needle Valves 435, Check Valves 436, Valve Selection and Designation 438 Chokes, 440 Piping Design Considerations, 441 General Piping Design Details, 448 Steel Pipe Materials 448, Minimum Pipe Wall Thickness 448, Pipe End Connections 449, Branch Connections 450, Fiberglass Reinforced Pipe 451, Insulation 451 Miscellaneous Piping Design Details, 461 Target Tees 461, Chokes 461, Flange Protectors 462, Vessel Drains 464, Open Drains 465, Piping Vent and Drain Valves 465, Control Stations 465 CHAPTER 16 Prime Movers 467 Reciprocating Engines, 468 Four-Stroke Cycle Engine 468, Two-Stroke Cycle Engine 470, Comparison of Two-Cycle and Four-Cycle Engines 473, Engine Speed 474, Naturally Aspirated vs. Supercharged Engines 475, Carburetion and Fuel Injection 475, Engine Shutdown System 477 Gas lurbine Engines, 477 Fundamentals 479, Effect of Ambient Conditions 482, Effect of Air Compressor Speed 482, Single- vs. Multi-Shaft Turbines 483, Effect of Air Contaminants 486 Environmental Considerations, 487 Air Pollution 487, Noise Pollution 492 x CHAPTER 17 Electrical Systems , 493 Sources of Power, 493 Utility Power 494, Electrical Generating Stations 495 Power System Design, 496 Three-Phase Connections 496, Power 497, Power Factor 498, Short Circuit Currents 500 Hazardous Area Location Classification, 500 Gas Detection Systems, 513 Grounding, 515 D.C. Power Supply, 517 Categories of Devices, 518 Limitations on Installation of Electrical Devices in Hazardous Areas, 524 Wiring s, 529 Division 1 Areas 531, Division 2 Areas 533, Wiring System Selection 533, Junction Boxes and Conduit Fittings 535, Sealing Fittings 535, Receptacles and Attachment Plugs 538, Seal Locations 539, Seal Fittings Installation 540, Specific Equipment Considerations 541 Corrosion Considerations, 545 Electrical Standards and Codes, 547 Index 553 xi Acknowledgments We would like to thank the following individuals who have contributed to the preparation of this edition. Without their help, this edition would not have been possible. Both of us are indebted to the many people at Paragon, Shell, and other companies who have aided, instructed, cri- tiqued, and provided us with hours of argument about the various topics covered in this volume. In particular we would like to thank Folake A. Ayoola, K. S. Chiou, Lei Tan, Dennis A. Crupper, Kevin R. Mara, Con- rad F. Anderson, Lindsey S. Stinson, Douglas L. Erwin, John H. Galey, Lonnie W. Shelton, Mary E. Thro, Benjamin T. Banken, Jorge Zafra, Santiago Pacheco, and Dinesh P. Patel. We also wish to acknowledge Lukman Mahfoedz, Fiaz Shahab, Hol- land Simanjuntak, Richard Simanjuntak, Richard Sugeng, Abdul Wahab, Adolf Pangaribuan of VICO, and Allen Logue and Rocky Buras of Glytech for providing source material, suggestions, and criticism of the chapters on heat exchangers, dehydration, condensate stabilization, and surface safety systems. A final thank you to Denise Christesen for her coordinating efforts and abilities in pulling this all together for us. xii Preface As teachers of production facility design courses in petroleum engi- neering programs at University of Houston and Louisiana State Universi- ty, we both realized there was no single source that could be used as a text in this field. We found ourselves reproducing pages from catalogs, reports, projects we had done, etc., to provide our students with the basic ination they needed to understand the lectures and carry out their assignments. Of more importance, the material that did exist usually con- tained nomographs, charts, and rules of thumb that had no reference to the basic theories and underlying assumptions upon which they were based. Although this text often relies and builds upon ination that was presented in Surface Production Operations, Volume I Design of Oil-Handling Systems and Facilities, it does present the basic concepts and techniques necessary to select, specify, and size gas-handling, -con- ditioning, and -processing equipment. This volume, which covers about one semesters work or a two-week short course, focuses on areas that primarily concern gas-handling, -con- ditioning, and -processing facilities. Specific areas included are process selection, hydrate prevention, condensate stabilization, compression, dehydration, acid gas treating, and gas processing. As was the case with Volume 1, this text covers topics that are common to both oil- and gas- handling production facilities, such as pressure relief systems; surface safety systems; valves, fittings, and piping details; prime movers; and electrical considerations. Throughout the text, we have attempted to concentrate on what we perceive to be modern and common practices. We have either personally been involved in the design and troubleshooting of facilities throughout xiii the world or have people in our organizations who have done so, and undoubtedly we are influenced by our own experience and prejudices. We apologize if we left something out or have expressed opinions about equipment types that differ from your experiences. We have learned much from our students comments about such matters and would appre- ciate receiving yours for future revisions/editions. Ken E. Arnold, RE. Houston, Texas Maurice I. Stewart, Ph.D., RE. Metairie, Louisiana xiv CHAPTER 7 Overview of Gas-Handling Facilities * The objective of a gas-handling facility is to separate natural gas, con- densate, or oil and water from a gas-producing well and condition these fluids for sales or disposal. This volume focuses primarily on condition- ing natural gas for sales. Gas sweetening, the removal of corrosive sulfur compounds from natural gas, is discussed in Chapter 7; s of gas dehydration are the subject of Chapter 8, and gas processing to extract natural gas components is discussed in Chapter 9. Condensate stabiliza- tion, the process of flashing the lighter hydrocarbons to gas in order to stabilize the heavier components in the liquid phase, is the